Key Takeaways

• Helium-3 (abbreviated as 3He) is an isotope of Helium (abbreviated as He), the second element in the periodic table and a noble gas.
• The resource is currently "most sought-after" for its potential use as a fuel for nuclear fusion, a safe form of nuclear energy that is not radioactive and avoids dangerous waste products.
• Helium-3 has other valuable applications, such as cryogenics, due to its ability to lower temperatures to close to absolute zero, non-radioactive medical imaging, nuclear weapon detection, quantum computing, and neutron research.
• Although Helium-3 is "virtually nonexistent here on Earth," where it is estimated that only .01 metric tons currently exist, the Earth's moon is believed to be home to 1,100,000 metric tonnes of the resource, representing "enough to power human energy needs for up to 10,000 years."

Introduction

I. Helium-3 Definition

• Helium-3 (abbreviated as 3He) is a gas derivative of the element Helium (abbreviated as He), the second element in the periodic table and a noble gas.
• Unlike Helium, which is defined by its "2 protons, 2 neutrons, and 2 electrons," Helium-3 has only one neutron and is, therefore, a light isotope of Helium.
• The substance was first theorized to exist in 1934 by Mark Oliphant, an Australian nuclear physicist, who assumed that Helium-3 would be a radioactive isotope. This myth was debunked after natural samples of Helium-3 were subsequently discovered from the atmosphere as well as gas wells.
• Notably, Helium-3 is the "only stable isotope of any element with more protons than neutrons" apart from Hydrogen-1.

II. Importance of Helium-3

• Helium-3 is currently "most sought-after" for its potential use as an energy source, according to a preponderance of experts including space organizations (e.g., European Space Agency), educational institutions (e.g., Institut Polytechnique De Paris), energy trades (e.g., Energy Industry Review) and Helium-3 futurists (e.g., Christopher Barnatt).
• Specifically, it has been believed since 1988 that the isotope could be used as a fuel for nuclear fusion, a safer form of nuclear energy that is not radioactive and avoids dangerous waste outputs. At present, nuclear power plants depend on the separate process of nuclear fission, which releases radioactive waste alongside any energy gains.

 

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• Scientists have theorized that Helium-3 and Deuterium could serve as fuels for "aneutronic" fusion reactors, wherein the two would be fused together to create Helium and a proton, thereby generating a "highly efficient form of nuclear power with virtually no waste and no radiation."
• Currently, the University of Wisconsin-Madison is testing a small reactor of this structure at its Fusion Technology Institute. However, no trials have resulted in net power output. Although "a number of other types of reactors have been proposed" for Helium-3 nuclear fusion, most remain theoretical and appear to require more energy to operate than they ultimately produce.
• This early developmental state of Helium-3 nuclear fusion technology, however, is considered "almost irrelevant at this point...[as] no-one can dismiss the potential of... Helium-3 power generation."
• Moreover, Helium-3 has other valuable applications such as cryogenics due to its ability to lower temperatures to close to absolute zero, non-radioactive medical imaging, nuclear weapon detection, quantum computing, and neutron research.

III. The Moon as a Source of Helium-3

• Considering the importance of Helium-3, governments, companies, and other institutions are evaluating the moon as a primary future source of this gas.
• Seeking out this extra-terrestrial extraction location is viewed as necessary, given that Helium-3 is "virtually nonexistent here on Earth." This is because the planet's atmosphere prevents any Helium-3 from arriving.
• It is estimated that only .01 metric tons of Helium-3 exist on Earth. Although recent research indicates that Helium-3 quantities on the planet may be higher than previously thought, the available quantities remain very low.
• Additionally, while Helium-3 can be generated as a by-product of nuclear weapons, this could yield only 15 kilos per annum given current capabilities.
• In contrast, the Earth's moon lacks an atmosphere and has therefore been exposed to solar winds with Helium-3 for "billions of years."
• As a result, it is widely estimated that the planet's satellite is home to 1,100,000 metric tonnes of Helium-3 within the first few meters of its surface, making it an abundant source of the resource.
• Such volume would be "enough to power human energy needs for up to 10,000 years," while just a fully loaded Space Shuttle of Helium-3 from the moon could power the United States for a full year.
• Meanwhile, it is worth noting that Jupiter is separately being evaluated as a source for mining Helium-3, owing to the planet's even more vast quantities of the isotope. However, transportation from a more distant location would add complexity.

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• In February 2021, the US Nuclear Corp and Solar System Resources Corporation, a Polish startup, signed an agreement for the purpose of delivering the Helium-3 isotopes "from deposits located on the Moon."
• Experts warn that Russia and China are likely to join forces in a brewing war to set up a mining base in space to keep the United States from dominating extraterrestrial commerce.
• In early February, Russia and China vowed greater space cooperation as part of a "no-limits" partnership.

Introduction

China — Russia

• In early February, Russia and China vowed greater space cooperation as part of a "no-limits" partnership.
• The Artemis Accords have driven Russia and China towards increased cooperation in space "out of fear and necessity."
• China and Russia are considering the establishment of a lunar base.
• Roscosmos director, Rogozin, said in an interview with the Chinese state-run broadcaster, CGTN, "We work well with our Chinese friends. To be friends in space, we must be friends on Earth."
• The chief scientist of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, Professor Ouyang Ziyuan, noted that the moon is so rich in the isotope, Helium-3, that it could solve "humanity's energy demand for around 10,000 years at least."
• In March 2022, Chinese state media reported that there are negotiations underway with Thailand, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and the European Space Agency about taking part in a "rival moon base." However, the current war in Ukraine has made this project less appealing to some nations.

The United States — China And Russia

• Experts warn that Russia and China are likely to join forces in a brewing war to set up a mining base in space to keep the United States from dominating extraterrestrial commerce.
• Due to the fact that its economic and military components are virtually inseparable, China has an upfront advantage.
• Meanwhile, America faces a bigger challenge in rallying and uniting different elements of its national power to"pursue a single challenging long-term mission."
• Tim Chrisman, a former space analyst for the CIA, stated, "Outer space holds virtually limitless amounts of energy and raw materials, from Helium-3 fuel on the Moon for clean fusion reactors to heavy metals and volatile gases from asteroids, which can be harvested for use on Earth and in space."
• Chrisman added that China is driving toward potential revolutions in space mining and energy extraction, and could leave the United States lagging behind. He emphasized that China will "almost certainly" use any of the resources it has extracted to the detriment of its competitors and adversaries.
• Furthermore, he likened the competition for mining Helium-3 to the moon to the race between the US and Russia for who would launch the first satellite.

United States — Poland

• In February 2021, the US Nuclear Corp and Solar System Resources Corporation, a Polish startup, signed an agreement for the purpose of delivering Helium-3 isotopes "from deposits located on the Moon." According to the Solar System Resources Corporation, this is the world's "first transatlantic agreement of its kind."
• Adam Jan Zwierzynski, the director and co-founder of the company, made the following statement, "The signed contract is historic. We believe that, in the near future, the cooperation will make a contribution to meet the growing energy needs of the world and will accelerate the development of the global space industry, especially in the space-mining sector."
• US Nuclear Corp. will receive 500 kg of the isotope from Solar System Resource Corporation by 2028-2032, as stated in the letter of intent.
• There has been no disclosure of the contracted price, but Helium-3 is, according to the Polish company, currently valued at $16.6 billion per tonne.
• In a joint press statement, the companies said that this partnership was motivated by the COVID-19 pandemic, the climate crisis, and the need to find new alternative sources of clean, ecological, stable, and safe energy that's accepted by "accepted by the international environmental community."
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Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• Kepler-442b is a super-Earth exoplanet. It is one of the most Earth-like planets that has been discovered so far.
• TRAPPIST-1e is a terrestrial exoplanet. Its regions can support surface water and offer conditions that could allow Earth-like life, providing that its low gravity is "sufficient to hold an atmosphere."
• Gliese 667 Cc is a super-Earth exoplanet. It has the right temperature for water to exist in liquid form, located in its star's habitable zone.
• KOI 5554.01 is an exoplanet that was deemed the most habitable by Dr. Schulze-Makuch, known for his research on 24 potentially superhabitable planets, which could be better for life than Earth.

Introduction

What Determines a Celestial Body's Habitability

• According to researchers, larger-than-Earth rocky planets may be more habitable due to more livable surface area and thick, stable atmosphere. At the same time, celestial bodies that are about the same size but the land is broken into more parts may be better for life, since large continents may have inhabitable desserts in the middle.
• Furthermore, planets that have at least 1.5x Earth's mass could be better at retaining interior heat, which positively impacts the evolution of life over a longer time period.
• Particularly habitable planets may be slightly warmer than Earth (by about eight degrees Fahrenheit/five degrees Celsius), given that larger tropical zones promote biodiversity. However, they would likely also need more moisture.
• Additionally, it is likely that planets with waters that are shallower than those on Earth are better for life since shallow waters have more biodiversity than deep oceans.
• It is worth noting that there are no known exoplanets that fit all the requirements perfectly. In most cases, further research is also needed. However, scientists have singled out several candidates where life could potentially be possible.

KOI 5554.01

• KOI 5554.01 is an exoplanet that was deemed the most habitable by Dr. Schulze-Makuch, known for his research on 24 potentially superhabitable planets, which could be better for life than Earth.
• It was also named among possibly habitable exoplanets by other scientists, while the media noted that it is particularly appreciated in the science community.
• The planet is about the same size as Earth (between 0.79 and 1.29 of Earth's size). It is also a little bit older, as its estimated age is 6.5 billion years. Its average temperature is 27 degrees C (or 80 degrees F).
• KOI 5554.01 orbits a yellow dwarf. It is approximately 700 light-years from Earth.

Kepler-442B

• Kepler-442b is a super-Earth exoplanet. It is also known as KOI-4742.01, KOI-4742 b, KIC 4138008 b, and Gaia DR2 2100258047339711488 b.
• It was discovered in 2015 using the transit method. "The transit method is a photometric method that aims to indirectly detect the presence of one or more exoplanets in orbit around a star."
• According to Open Exoplanet Catalogue, Kepler-442b is one of the most Earth-like planets that has been discovered so far.
• Kepler-442b mass is 2.36 times that of Earth.
• It has a planet radius of 1.34 x Earth and an orbital radius of 0.409 AU, which means that it needs 112.3 days to complete a rotation around its star. Its eccentricity is 0.04.
• Kepler-442b is located in the constellation of Lyra, which is 1,120 light years away.
• Kepler orbits a K-Star, which is thought to be more habitable than sun-like stars and M-Stars. Bill Steigerwald claims that K-Stars have "the advantage of a larger probability of simultaneous oxygen-methane detection compared to Sun-like stars without the drawbacks that come with an M star host."K-Stars also live longer than Sun-analog stars. While Sun-analog stars only live for 10 billion years, K-Star can live 17 billion to 70 billion years, providing ample time for life to evolve.
• Furthermore, Kepler-442b is among the most habitable because it receives "a PAR photon flux slightly larger than the one necessary to sustain a large biosphere." This means that the planet gets enough radiation to allow photosynthesis.

Gliese 667 Cc

• GJ 667 Cc is a super-Earth exoplanet. It was discovered in 2011 using the Radial Velocity method. This method uses the fact that "a star does not remain completely stationary when it is orbited by a planet" to identify potential planets.
• Gliese 667 Cc mass is 3.8 times larger compared to Earth.
• It has a planet radius of 1.77 x Earth (estimate) and an orbital radius of 0.125 AU, which translates into it taking 28.1 days to complete a rotation around its star. Its eccentricity is 0.02.
• Gliese 667 Cc is 22 light-years from Earth and orbits an M-Star. M-Stars have an extended lifespan due to their limited radiance. Compared to Earth, it is located eight times closer to its much cooler and smaller star and receives a "radiation flux of about 90% of what we receive from our sun."
• A 2012 study showed that Gliese 667 Cc was even more Earth-like than Kepler-22b. Additionally, the planet has the added advantage of being in Earth's direct cosmological neighborhood.
• The Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics once declared Gliese 667 Cc the "most Earth-like object known outside of our solar system."
• Gliese 667CC has the right temperature for water to exist in liquid form, sitting comfortably in its star habitable zone.
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Trappist-1e

• Trappist-1e is a terrestrial exoplanet. Just like the Gliese 667 Cc, it orbits an M-Star. It was discovered using the transit method in 2017.
• Its mass is 0.692 that of Earth.
• It has a planet radius of 0.92x that of Earth and an orbital radius of 0.02925 AU. Due to those characteristics, it needs 6.1 days to complete a rotation around its star. Its eccentricity is 0.01.
• Trappist-1e's lighter mass suggests that it has an iron core and silicate rocky mantle composition, the same as Earth. Additionally, it receives "66% of the solar irradiance that Earth does, giving it a mean surface temperature of 251 K (-22°C)."
• Research suggests that some of Trappist-1e's regions can support surface water and offer conditions that could allow Earth-like life, providing that its low gravity is "sufficient to hold an atmosphere."
• It is also important to note that Trappist-1e is tidally locked to its star, meaning that the same side faces the star at all times.

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• A leading Jewish philosopher, Abraham Joshua Heschel, challenged the notion of paying more attention to space exploration over issues on Earth by stating that "the conflict we face is between the exploration of space and the more basic needs of the human race."
• Space exploration could potentially provide big profits from tourism and resource extraction, but only the rich and most developed countries will reap the benefits.
• Experts predict that if many rockets are launched regularly, they could produce more greenhouse gases, deplete the ozone layer, and worsen global warming.

Introduction

Key Ethical Concerns Around Space Travel or Tourism

It Increases Social Inequality

• One of the major ethical concerns around space travel is that it will increase inequalities that exist today, from wealth to opportunity.

• Ethicists are concerned that the richest will dominate the space business, and it will become a market only available to the wealthiest consumers globally.
• According to FutureLearn, space tourism is very costly and inaccessible to most people. For example, tickets to space cost between $200,000–250,000 for Virgin Galactic flights and $28 million for one seat on Blue Origin's spaceflight. In addition, Space X charged $55 million for a ticket on its 2022 mission with Axiom.
• This means that only the super-wealthy can afford space tourism at the moment, and shows the impact of wealth inequality.

• A possible consequence will be that space exploration could potentially provide big profits from tourism and resource extraction, but only the rich and most developed countries will be able to exploit the opportunity.

• When talking about how accessible space travel is, Michael Brown, assistant professor from the School of Physics and Astronomy at Monash University, states that "space billionaires are only broadening space access, limited to a couple of minutes of floating, to space millionaires."
• According to Jordan Bimm, a space historian at the University of Chicago, there are fundamental problems with giving billionaire business leaders (such as Amazon founder Jeff Bezos and Virgin Galactic Richard Branson, who have already gone to space and back) the keys to space because "they may not make the wisest or most ethical decisions for all of us. Bezos envisions millions of humans living off-world in verdant cylindrical space stations. Musk, on the other hand, is fixated on Mars and establishing a million-person city there. Can we trust them to establish just and humane off-world social and political orders?"

 

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Using Vital Resources Needed on Earth

• Ethicists argue that space travel and tourism are diverting resources away from earthy needs and problems. They are concerned that the Earth currently faces many social, economic, and humanitarian problems that need more resources and attention to resolve and could use the means allocated for space activities.

• Some wonder why the billionaires going into space don't use some of their money to solve world hunger, the climate crisis, and general inequality, but claim that space exploration will help the future of humanity and protect the planet.

• Problems like poverty, food insecurity, and homelessness will continue to haunt the world, including rich countries like the US, which diverts part of its budget (0.5%) to NASA. This equates to $23.3 billion of its $4.5 trillion budget.
• Things like food and healthcare should be a top priority, especially during the current COVID-19 pandemic.

• A leading Jewish philosopher, Abraham Joshua Heschel, challenged the notion of paying more attention to space exploration over issues on Earth by stating that "the conflict we face is between the exploration of space and the more basic needs of the human race."
• While responding to Jeff Bezos’ space flight, Oxfam International's Global Head of Inequality Campaign, Deepak Xavier, said, "we’ve now reached stratospheric inequality. Billionaires burning into space, away from a world of pandemic, climate change, and starvation. Eleven people are likely now dying of hunger each minute while Bezos prepares for an 11-minute personal space flight. This is human folly, not a human achievement."

Worsening Global Warming

• Experts predict that space tourism will negatively impact the weather and exacerbate global warming.

• Space companies plan to launch hundreds of flights into space. For example, Virgin Galactic has said it will introduce 400 flights into space every year, adding hundreds more rocket launches.
• According to Darin Toohey, a professor of atmospheric science at the University of Colorado-Boulder, experts can predict the impact of space flights based on the type of fuel the rockets use and what happens when that fuel is burned. He is concerned that the carbon-based fuels used by some space companies, like SpaceX and Virgin Galactic, generate black carbon or soot when burned, increasing global warming.
• Some companies, like Blue Origin, state that their rockets are fueled by liquid oxygen and hydrogen, and the only byproduct during flight is water vapor. However, according to Eloise Marais, a professor of geography at University College London, water vapor can still contribute to global warming as it plays a part in the formation of clouds in the upper atmosphere.
• Marais also adds that all space travel will generate nitrogen oxides from high temperatures needed to re-enter the atmosphere. According to the EPA, nitrogen oxide is 300 times more powerful than carbon dioxide at warming the atmosphere.

• According to Toohey, the soot released by carbon-based fuels reflects sunlight and could increase warming in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
• Experts predict that if many rockets are launched regularly, they could produce more greenhouse gases, deplete the ozone layer, and worsen global warming, as the greenhouse gases heat the Earth more easily.

• When talking about the potential of black carbon to magnify warming in the upper levels of the atmosphere, Toohey stated that “if you look at kilogram per kilogram, the black carbon is between 100,000 and a million times more effective at heating the upper atmosphere.”
• When talking about how water vapor could contribute to warming the atmosphere, Eloise Marais said, "Water vapor is not doing nothing up there. It can also actually contribute to the formation of clouds in the upper atmosphere where clouds are quite rare and clouds, also, unfortunately, have climate impacts. They change how much the sun is reflected or reaches the surface of the earth. So there are all these sorts of complexities to consider in something like water vapor that sounds so innocuous."

Endangering the Health and Life of Those Who Go Into Space

• Space companies that want to involve civilian customers will endanger them purely for the sake of financial gain, as opposed to astronauts and the organizations they represent, who take risks for more altruistic reasons, such as "science, innovation, and technological advancement." So far, 562 people have been in space, almost all of them on government-backed research missions.

• Due to their purely materialistic motivation, companies are less likely to thoroughly verify if a passenger willing to pay millions for their seat qualifies for the trip. To make it worse, there is no legislation that could stop them from onboarding a senior with serious health issues. They are also not required to explain the risks associated with space travel in sufficient detail. At the same time, random customers may not fully understand them, unlike astronauts. .
• It is particularly important in the context of space travel not being safe, with possible catastrophes, 30 associated human health risks, and vibration and acceleration that could injure or affect the health of less fit passengers. Of course, death is the ultimate possible consequence. For example, a Virgin Galactic flight test resulted in the death of co-pilot Mike Alsbury in 2014.
• According to an article published in Viterbi Conversations in Ethics, early users of space tourism can be likened to those who were excited about other novel ways of traveling. Specifically, the article states, "Like the revolutionary Titanic, or the cutting-edge Hindenburg, the promises of radical new travel technologies have often proved perilous to their unfortunate early passengers."

• Brig. Gen. Shimon Sarid, CEO of SpaceIL says that many believe "the first astronauts to be sent to another planet — most likely Mars — will be on a 'one-way ticket.'"He adds, "Who makes those decisions? Even if the astronauts are willing to do so, is it ethical to send them?" While he talks about the dangers for astronauts, the quote appears even more relevant in the context of civilian passengers.

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• In a survey that compared the number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in astronauts and their non-flight counterparts, the risk was four to five times greater among astronauts.
• On average, astronauts receive up to 80 millisieverts (mSv) of radiation within six months in space, compared to 2 mSv annually while on Earth. This heightened exposure greatly increases the risk of cancer and potential acute radiation illness.
• It is expected that one in three astronauts will struggle with memory processes, while one in five will be deficient in their executive functions.

Introduction

 

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Physical Health Concerns

Cardiovascular Dysfunction and Dysregulation

• Like other body organs, the cardiovascular system suffers from microgravity. Research has shown a decrease in the heart rate of astronauts during spaceflights, often resulting in potentially fatal dysrhythmias.
• Microgravity is also known to cause changes in blood and plasma volume. Other long-term symptoms such as post-flight orthostatic intolerance associated with cardiovascular changes have been diagnosed in astronauts.
• Cardiovascular health is also affected by space (ionizing) radiation, which consists of "highly energetic galactic cosmic rays and solar particles."

 

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• When individuals are exposed to microgravity and radiation for an extended period, they suffer "a massive cephalad fluid translocation and altered arterial pressure, which attenuate blood pressure regulatory mechanisms and increase cardiac output."
• The results of this exposure are:
• A 10%-15% reduction in plasma volume
• Increases in stroke volume (35–46%) and cardiac output (18–41%)
• The possibility of hypovolemia (10–15% decrease in blood volume)
• In a survey that compared the number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in astronauts and their non-flight counterparts, the difference was as high as four to five times greater among astronauts.

 

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• When the heart is exposed to the "proton, and heavy ion radiation of deep space, coronary artery degeneration, aortic stiffness, carotid intima thickening via collagen-mediated action, accelerated atherosclerosis, and induction of a pro-inflammatory state" are common complications that often occur.

Radiation Carcinogenesis

• Research has proven that radiations can cause genomic instability in cells. This risk is particularly high among astronauts who have been on exploration-class missions, such that it continues to have effects post-flight.
• Radiation carcinogenesis induces cancers that are epithelial in origin, including cancers of the lung, breast, stomach, colon, and bladder, and leukemia.
• Space radiation causes oxidative damage, epigenetic changes, and DNA damage which eventually lead to cancer.

 

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• On average, astronauts receive up to 80 millisieverts (mSv) of radiation within six months in space, compared to 2 mSv annually while on Earth. This heightened exposure greatly increases the risk of cancer and potential acute radiation illness.
• Exposure to radiation affects important stem cell populations in the blood, skin, eye, intestine, and lungs. When these organs are affected, the body may suffer blood production failure, infections, hemorrhage, pneumonia, and organ failure, which may result in fatal radiation sickness.

Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-Ocular Syndrome (SANS)

• The symptoms of Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-Ocular Syndrome (SANS), formerly known as Vision Impairment Intracranial Pressure (VIIP), are "edema (swelling) of the optic disc and retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL), chorioretinal folds (wrinkles in the retina), globe flattening, and refractive error shifts." Within a six-month mission, astronauts are exposed to four of these symptoms, including optic disc edema (ODE), chorioretinal folds, shifts in refractive error, and globe flattening.
• Although the development of SANS is not yet fully understood, its likely causes include "increased intracranial pressure, ocular venous congestion, and individual anatomical/genetic variability."
• Lengthy space flights, i.e., lasting 30 days or longer, significantly increase the risk of SANS. The majority of diagnosed cases occurred "during or immediately after long-duration spaceflight."
• Depending on the level of exposure, astronauts may lose visual function due to ODE or may experience visual distortions or reduced visual acuity due to chorioretinal folds.

 

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• Chorioretinal folds have a 15-20% prevalence, while refractive error shifts are common in about 16% of astronauts who have been on long-duration spaceflights.
• Contrary to popular opinion, SANS affects both male and female astronauts.

Mental Health Concerns

Learning and Memory Impairment

• Space radiation is known to induce "significant neurocognitive complications associated with an impairment in neurotransmission." These complications sometimes have long-term effects even after spaceflight.
• It is expected that one in three astronauts will struggle with memory processes, while one in five will be deficient in their executive functions.
• The deficiency in executive functions and decision-making is a result of "functional loss in several areas of the brain, such as the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate, anterior cingulate, and basal forebrain."

 

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• Research has proven that several "alterations in the intrinsic electrophysiological features of CA1 superficial layer pyramidal neurons in the dorsal hippocampus may represent a consequence of the exposure to a prolonged 18 cGy dose of neutron radiation", with symptoms that may persist after spaceflight.
• Exposure to chronic radiation in specific doses is known to cause "impairment in cellular signaling, both in the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus." This level of exposure leads to learning and memory impairment and can worsen anxiety behaviors.

Behavioral Conditions

• Astronauts face the risk of Adverse Cognitive and Behavioral Conditions and Psychiatric Disorders due to causative factors such as exposure to radiation, isolation, and confinement, distance from earth, and prolonged weightlessness.
• Studies have shown cases where astronauts found it difficult to adapt psychologically to the spaceflight environment. Over the years, there have been accounts of adverse responses due to work pressure, hostile and irritable patterns, and depression.
• Studies on the behavioral patterns of astronauts have shown that "subjective perceptions of stress increase over time" and are related to sleep quality and sleep duration.

 

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• Research has proven that isolation and confinement are the leading cause of "motivational decline, fatigue, somatic complaints, and social tensions," heightened friction, and social conflicts.

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• According to a study by Pechenkova et al., spaceflight decreases "functional connectivity of the cerebellum to regions with proprioception, visual, motor, and somatosensory functions."
• The extent of permanent bone loss, which occurs during spaceflight, can be compared to a "decade worth of age-related bone loss on Earth." Six months in space equals bone loss from two decades of aging.
• Microstructural changes affect sensorimotor performance, which includes vision and motion coordination, and can cause impairment. This impairment may take effect early, that is, while in space, and can be "detrimental to managing precise tasks."

Introduction

Changes

Changes in Brain Structure (Macrostructure)

• Research has proven that prolonged time in space causes macrostructural changes in the brain. Macrostructural changes include alterations in tissue volumes, cerebrospinal fluid distribution, and brain position.

 

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• These changes in the brain are a likely result of "cumulative exposure to multiple independent environmental stressors." Space mission duration often determines the severity of changes to the brain.
• Neuroimaging studies have discovered changes such as "narrowing of the central sulcus, an upward shift of the brain, twisting of the cerebral aqueduct, and increased ventricular volumes." With a prolonged stay in space, astronauts experience a higher increase in total ventricular volumes. The longer the mission, the higher the ventricular volume.
• The percentage of increase varies depending on the affected ventricle. Below are the affected ventricles and their percentage increase in the sample population;
• Left lateral ventricle (LLV, 17.1%)
• Right lateral ventricle (RLV, 15.2%)
• Third ventricle (3 V,15.4%) with relative sparing of the fourth ventricle (4 V, −0.83%) 
• Follow-up scans seven months later revealed that although ventricular volume had gradually decreased, it was yet to return to preflight measurements. In similar studies, the ventricular volume continued to increase in astronauts who spent a long time (12 months) in space.
• According to a study by Pechenkova et al., spaceflight decreases "functional connectivity of the cerebellum to regions with proprioception, visual, motor, and somatosensory functions."

 

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Bone Density and Muscle Loss

• Space travel results in loss of bone density, which typically takes more than a year to recover. In a study of astronauts at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, weight-bearing bones had only partially recovered from the last spaceflight that ended a year before.
• The extent of permanent bone loss, which occurs during spaceflight, can be compared to a "decade worth of age-related bone loss on Earth." Six months in space equals bone loss from two decades of aging.

 

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• Weight-bearing bones have minimal functions in space's microgravity environment. Astronauts, therefore, adapt differently on return to earth. Some experience difficulties walking, while others ease back into regular routines.
• Astronauts who stay in space for longer durations experience more severe bone loss and "could sustain 75 pounds (334 Newtons) of force less than they could before their space missions."
• At this rate, 33% of astronauts on a three-year spaceflight to Mars may suffer osteoporosis.
• Muscles, like bones, also take a long time to recover from the effects of microgravity. While in space, Astronauts lose protein in the muscles, which results in post-flight weakness and the "increased incidence of low backache pre and postflight."

Mitochondrial Dysfunction

• The cell powerhouse, mitochondria, undergoes activity changes while in space. The mitochondria contribute to the changes that happen in the human body during spaceflight.
• While in space, the mitochondria break down, putting the body's primary organs and immune system at risk. There are indications that this "might contribute to health or performance challenges faced by humans in space.
• Evidence has shown that the mitochondria are directly affected by elements of space, such as microgravity. Space microgravity "induces the upregulation of glycolysis, TCA cycles, ROS levels, and NADPH oxidase activity in mitochondria."

 

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• According to a study by NASA scientists, mitochondria are the universal mechanisms or master switches responsible for other functions in the body. Therefore, other dysfunctions can be traced back to the mitochondria.

Impaired Sensorimotor Performance (Microstructure)

• Research has established that spaceflight alters the microstructure of the brain and makes changes to its white matter component.
• Microstructural changes impact connectivity in areas of the brain that concern vestibular, cerebellar, visual, motor, somatosensory, and cognitive functions, as briefly noted above.
• Areas associated with sensorimotor tracts experience the most microstructural changes. These changes modify the "corpus callosum, which is the area that connects the two halves of the brain," and the cerebellum, which controls physical movements.

 

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• While some of these changes may be transient, many remain unchanged. Such permanent changes are evidence of neuroplasticity.
• Microstructural changes affect sensorimotor performance, which includes vision and motion coordination, and can cause impairment. This impairment may take effect early, that is, while in space, and can be "detrimental to managing precise tasks."

Long-Term Effects

• Modern science is yet to establish the possibility of microevolution due to the changes caused by a prolonged time in space. Overall, microevolution can occur within a "single generation and be passed on to offspring."
• However, for physiological changes to occur, humans would have to relocate to Mars or be exposed to space elements for a lengthy period. The possibility of this seems unlikely, considering that "extended spaceflights do not last more than a few years at most." Space missions typically last 12 months.
• Moreover, before microevolution can begin, there must be selection pressures imposed by the environment which will result in natural selection.
• If microevolution occurs, there are bound to be subtle changes that can cause "small, environmentally-related functional variations that are not immediately noticeable" but are made evident over time.
• Examples of microevolution could be increased risk of diseases caused by space elements or reduced incidence of space sickness.

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• In 2018, Space X's CEO, Elon Musk confirmed on Twitter that the company's Starship rocket was inspired by 'The Adventures of Tintin.'
• Experts believe that the International Space Station's inside design bares resemblance to the Space Station V from Stanley Kubrick's "2001: A Space Odyssey."
• According to Aurelia's founder, Ariel Ekblaw, TESSERAE's scale of space structure is inspired by the book "Seveneves" by Neal Stephenson. In the book, the International Space Station (ISS) is converted into a blend of growing and extending structures.

Introduction

SpaceX Starship

• In 2018, Space X's CEO, Elon Musk confirmed on Twitter that the company's Starship rocket was inspired by 'The Adventures of Tintin.'

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• The Adventures of Tintin is a Belgian comic depicting Tintin and his companions embarking on long-distance travels in search of fresh stories.
• The Space X Starship design is reminiscent of rockets from the 1950 comic 'Destination Moon.' TinTin and his friends used a red-and-yellow checkered rocket with enormous fins to visit the moon and investigate a top-secret government project.

 

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• Elon Musk, Space X's CEO, was quoted saying that "the iteration before this decoupled the landing legs from the control surfaces — it basically had 6 legs. I actually didn’t like the aesthetics of that design,” he added, “I love the Tintin rocket design, so I kind of wanted to bias it toward that. So now we have the three large legs, with two of them actuating as body flaps or large moving wings.”

TESSERAE

• Tessellated Electromagnetic Space Structures for the Exploration of Reconfigurable, Adaptive Environments (TESSERAE) is a project by Aurelia. Aurelia was founded by Ariel Ekblaw, who is also the founder of MIT Space Exploration.
• TESSERAE is a reconfigurable space habitat. It is a modular space station that self-assembles. The project is aimed at inspiring and protecting humanity in space in the future.

 

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• According to Ariel Ekblaw, TESSERAE's scale of space structure is inspired by the book "Seveneves" by Neal Stephenson. In the book, the International Space Station (ISS) is converted into a blend of growing and extending structures.

 

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• In an interview with Payload, Ariel Ekblaw said, "I’ve been really inspired by two different books. One was "Seveneves" by Neal Stephenson, where they convert the ISS into this amalgam kind of growing, expanding structure. They also have this notion of little modular spacecraft called “arklets” that can dock and separate and dock and separate for reconfigurable space architecture."

US Space Force’s Uniform

• In September 2021, the U.S. Space Forces unveiled new uniform prototypes. The uniform is made up of a dark blue jacket and gray trousers. Its buttons clearly display the delta design that the service adopted after its inception.

 

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• Experts have noticed that the uniforms bear a striking similarity to uniforms from the television show "Battlestar Galactica" due to their futuristic and asymmetric design, as well as metallic elements. While the resemblance received mixed reviews, some other inspirations were mentioned, including a science-fiction classic, "Flash Gordon, Forbidden Planet."

 

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• Lisa Yaszek, Regents Professor at Regents Professor of Science Fiction Studies in the School of Literature, Media, and Communication at Georgia Tech, says that she frequently talks about "how science fiction is a global language, and this uniform is an example of that. It wants to signal the unique nature of the Space Force as the military of a technoscientific present and future. The jacket does that by referencing the great tradition of imagining space forces through science fiction.” 
• She also notes that drawing inspiration from the science-fiction genre likely helped designers come up with unisex uniforms and praises the US Space Force for starting the design process with the female version.

NASA's International Space Station

• The International Space Station (ISS) is a modular space station that orbits the earth. The station has crew members aboard performing research in areas of science and technology. 

 

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• Space Station V spacecraft was a large space station orbiting the earth in Stanley Kubrick's film "2001: A Space Odyssey."
• Experts believe that the inside design of the Space Station V spacecraft is strikingly similar to the International Space Station (ISS). While the former appears more high-end, ISS is much more advanced technologically.

 

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• According to Lee Cavendish, an expert in space technologies and planetary science, " the Space Station V provided inspiration for the International Space Station (ISS), which has been orbiting the Earth since 1998 and currently accommodates up to six astronauts at a time. Although Space Station V appears much more luxurious, the ISS has accomplished much more science. "

Animations of Boeing's Spacecraft

• In 2004, John Rankin, an animator for the 3D Multimedia Group produced scientifically accurate concept animations of a space mission proposed by Boeing for a voyage to Jupiter's moons in an effort to find an environment capable of supporting basic alien life.
• His images provided a big screen view of the concepts that were being studied for the NASA mission.
• Rankin compared his 12-minute cartoons to "2001: A Space Odyssey." It depicted JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) being launched into orbit by a Boeing Delta rocket, unfolding and stretching its boom-like body, and "and then firing up its nuclear reactor and ion thrusters for the journey to Jupiter, some 483 million miles away. Skipping ahead five years, the video shows JIMO slipping into orbit around Jupiter's planet-sized icy moons: Callisto, Ganymede and Europa."

 

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Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• Launched on July 30, 2020, Perseverance Rover's objective is to locate signs of ancient life by studying the Martian landscape.
• Parker Solar Probe is descending into the Sun's atmosphere with a mission to " touch the sun."
• DSCOVR is "an American space weather station that monitors changes in the solar wind, providing space weather alerts and forecasts for geomagnetic storms that could disrupt power grids, satellites, telecommunications, aviation, and GPS."
• The goal of Gaia is to "create the largest, most precise three-dimensional map of the Milky Way by surveying about 1% of the galaxy's 100 billion stars."
• Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) was designed to gather and analyze particles of solar, interstellar, interplanetary, and galactic origins. The data helps in the understanding of the Sun's interaction with Earth and the evolution of the solar system.

Introduction

Mars 2020: Perseverance Rover

• Launched on July 30, 2020.
• The objective of Perseverance Rover is to locate signs of ancient life by studying the Martian landscape. It is the most advanced and largest rover sent by NASA to another planet. It landed on Mars on February 18, 2021. The mission also involves the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter, the first-ever rotary aircraft test on a different planet.

 

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BepiColombo

• Launched on October 20, 2018.
• BepiColombo's mission is to orbit Mercury to study the planet's formation, history, atmosphere, magnetosphere, and geophysics. It made its first flyby on the planet on October 1, 2021. It is the third spacecraft to visit Mercury.
• The mission is a collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).

 

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Parker Solar Probe

• Launched on August 12, 2018.
• Parker Solar Probe is diving into the Sun's atmosphere with a mission to " touch the sun." The spacecraft is the first to fly very close to the sun's surface. It is expected that its closest distance to the Sun will be about 3.9 million miles.

 

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DSCOVR (Deep Space Climate Observatory)

• Launched on February 11, 2015.
• DSCOVR is "an American space weather station that monitors changes in the solar wind, providing space weather alerts and forecasts for geomagnetic storms that could disrupt power grids, satellites, telecommunications, aviation, and GPS."
• DSCOVR is positioned between Earth and Sun at a point called Lagrange Point 1, which is millions of miles from Earth.

 

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Gaia

• Launched on December 19, 2013.
• The goal of Gaia is to "create the largest, most precise three-dimensional map of the Milky Way by surveying about 1% of the galaxy's 100 billion stars."

 

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Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX)

• Launched on October 19, 2008.
• Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) is a spacecraft that is mapping the solar system's boundaries from orbit around the Earth.
• IBEX is a satellite the size of a bus tire with telescopes that examine the edge of the solar system.

 

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New Horizons

• Launched on January 19, 2006.
• The goal of New Horizons is to explore the planet Pluto, including its moons and other Kuiper Belt objects. It is the first spacecraft to explore Pluto up close.

 

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Spitzer Space Telescope

• Launched on August 23, 2003.
• Spitzer Space Telescope was designed to "detect infrared radiation from heliocentric orbit." The ultra-sensitive infrared telescope is used to observe planets, distant galaxies, asteroids, and comets.
• Spitzer Space Telescope is the first telescope to discover light from an extrasolar planet.

 

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Mars Odyssey

• Launched on April 7, 2001.
• Mars Odyssey's objective is to "investigate the Martian environment and to provide key information on hazards future explorers might face."
• It is the "longest active spacecraft in orbit around a planet other than Earth."

 

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Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE)

• Launched on August 25, 1997.
• ACE was designed to gather and analyze particles of solar, interstellar, interplanetary, and galactic origins. The data helps in the understanding of the Sun's interaction with Earth and the evolution of the solar system. The spacecraft studies "spaceborne energetic particles from the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrange point, which is about 870,000 miles from Earth."

 

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Wind

• Launched on November 1, 1994. 
• NASA's Wind is a spacecraft that detects the solar wind that is "about to impact the Earth's magnetosphere. It has been placed around the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrange point.

 

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Geotail

• Launched on July 24, 1992.
• Geotail's goal is to "study the structure and dynamics of the long tail region of Earth’s magnetosphere, which is created on the nightside of Earth by the solar wind."
• The spacecraft survived in space six times longer than it was planned and continues to work and send back data.

 

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Hubble Space Telescope

• Launched on April 24, 1990.
• Hubble Space Telescope's objective is the Earth's orbit. It is the first astronomical device placed in the Earth's orbit "with the ability to record images in wavelengths of light spanning from ultraviolet to near-infrared."
• Hubble is also the first telescope that has been designed to be repaired in space.

 

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Voyager 1

• Launched on September 5, 1977.
• The objective of Voyager 1 is to fly by Saturn and Jupiter. It was the first spacecraft to cross into interstellar space in August 2012. It is still collecting data on an unknown territory.
• Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 (described below) hold the record of the longest-flying spacecraft in history.
• Furthermore, Voyager 1 has a copy of the Golden Record, i.e., "a message from humanity to the cosmos that includes greetings in 55 languages, pictures of people and places on Earth and music ranging from Beethoven to Chuck Berry's "Johnny B. Goode.""

 

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Voyager 2

• Launched on August 20, 1977.
• The objective of Voyager 2 is to fly by Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus. It is the second spacecraft to reach interstellar space, which it entered in November 2018.

 

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Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• The Outer Space Treaty, effective on October 10, 1967, is the primary international space law. It is currently signed by 89 countries that agreed not to claim ownership of space, take responsibility for their space exploration activities, and only use space travel for peaceful purposes.
• The Moon Agreement, one of the key treaties related to outer space, is currently backed by 11 signatory states and 18 state parties. Notably, the United States, the larger members of the European Space Agency, Russia, Japan, China, and India are not signatories to the Agreement. In effect, no space-faring state or one with domestic launch capability has ratified the Moon Treaty, rendering the treaty moot.
• The ambiguity in the Outer Space Treaty regarding the rights of private companies over outer space resources provides opportunities for wealthy investors and countries like the US to commodify resources, effectively undermining the notion that space is for all mankind. This loophole allows for the reinforcement of economic inequalities and US dominance in space.

Introduction

The Outer Space Treaty

• The Outer Space Treaty opened for signature on 27 January 1967 after the Russian Federation, United Kingdom, and the United States worked out a treaty to guide the exploration and operation of outer space. It came into effect on October 10, 1967, forming the basis for international space law for signatory nations.

 

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• Overseen by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,” also called “Outer Space Treaty,” is currently backed by 89 signatory states and 112 states parties.
• The treaty forbids the presence of weapons of mass destruction in the Earth's orbit and outer space and declares that all celestial bodies, including the Moon and the planets, can only be used for peaceful purposes. All countries can freely explore orbit and space, but no country can claim ownership in space.
• Each signatory state bears responsibility for its activities in space, providing authorization and continuing supervision for all actions, including those of non-governmental commercial entities. The states are each liable for any damage brought upon by their space objects and must refrain from contaminating space and celestial bodies.

The Moon Agreement

• The “Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,” also known as The Moon Agreement or The Moon Treaty, was opened for signature on 18 December 1979 and came into effect on 11 July 1984.
• Also overseen by the UNOOSA, the Moon Agreement is currently backed by 11 signatory states and 18 state parties. Notably, the United States, the larger members of the European Space Agency, Russia, Japan, China, and India are not signatories to the Agreement. In effect, no space-faring state or one with domestic launch capability has ratified the Moon Treaty, rendering the Agreement moot.

 

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• It was presented as an addendum to the Outer Space Treaty, aimed at closing its loopholes by establishing a legal framework governing how resources on the moon and other celestial bodies are obtained and used. It prohibits weapons testing, discourages the contamination of space, forbids state and private ownership of land on the moon, requires establishing an international regime to govern resource mining on the moon should it become feasible, and forbids the use of the moon's resources for non-scientific, non-universal aims.
• Signatories to the treaty are required to provide the United Nations Secretary-General, the public, and the international scientific community with as much detail as feasible and practicable of their discoveries of any natural resources on the moon.

Exploitation of Loopholes in the Treaties

•  Legal ambiguities in the Outer Space Treaty concerning the activities of private space companies in space present loopholes that signatories can exploit. This stems from the fact that outer space treaties were signed at a time when private companies with launch capabilities had not emerged.
• The treaties made signatories absolutely liable for any damages caused by space activities of their governmental and non-governmental entities, leaving the states responsible for enacting national legislation to guide all commercial launch activities to reduce the liabilities. As such, countries develop separate policies to allow their commercial space companies to explore and use natural resources on celestial bodies. For example, the US enacted the Space Resource Exploration and Utilization Act in 2015, with Luxembourg following suit in 2017.
• In the case of third-party claims resulting from the occurrence of mishaps during the space activities of private companies, the US has a three-tier indemnification system that limits the government's liability. However, while other countries like Russia, France, and China have developed similar systems, their systems are two-tiered, implying that their governments essentially have unlimited liability for damages caused by commercial companies.

Dangers Connected with Countries' Exploitation of the Loopholes

• The ambiguity in the Outer Space Treaty regarding the rights of private companies over outer space resources provides opportunities for wealthy investors and countries like the US to commodify resources, effectively undermining the notion that space is for all mankind. This loophole allows for the reinforcement of economic inequalities and US dominance in space.
• The clause in the Outer Space Treaty regarding the regulation of space surveillance presents a loophole that potentially creates incentives for the emergence of a “global panopticon network of satellites.” The proliferation of technologies that have both military and civilian applications raises ethical concerns regarding the nature of data collection in space.
• Furthermore, the proliferation of private satellite constellations greatly increases the chances of space contamination and calamitous space debris collisions with geopolitical consequences.

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• NASA and the Department of Defense have officially cataloged about 27,000 objects that can be classified as orbital debris, most of which are 10 cm and larger.
• Approximately 24% of cataloged space debris are satellites, while "around 11% are spent upper stages and mission-related objects such as launch adapters and lens covers."
• Space debris can orbit our planet 15 to 16 times a day, which greatly enhances the risk of collision.

Introduction

What is Space Debris Within Earth’s Orbit

• Space debris is made of natural meteoroid and artificial or man-made orbital debris, that is no longer useful, such as abandoned launch vehicle stages, nonfunctional spacecraft, fragmentation debris, and mission-related debris.
• Meteoroids (i.e., natural debris) are usually in Sun's orbit, while man-made debris tends to be in Earth's orbit.
• Approximately 24% of cataloged space debris are satellites, while "around 11% are spent upper stages and mission-related objects such as launch adapters and lens covers."

How Much Space Debris There Is

• NASA and the Department of Defense have officially cataloged about 27,000 objects that can be classified as orbital debris, most of which are 10 cm and larger.
• According to NASA, "there are around 23,000 pieces of debris larger than a softball orbiting the Earth."
• There are 500,000 pieces of space debris as small as a marble or slightly larger ("up to 0.4 inches, or 1 centimeter").
• The Earth's orbit has about 100 million pieces of space junk of the size starting at .04 inches (or one millimeter).

 

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How Space Debris Gets to the Near-Earth Environment

• According to Reuters, space debris gets to the near-Earth environment when launch vehicles are discarded or parts of a spacecraft float around in space.
• Debris also gets to the near-Earth environment when an explosion occurs in space or when countries destroy their satellites during missile tests. The US, Russia, China, and India are examples of countries that have shot down satellites in the past, creating space debris.
• Scientific American says high-speed clutter accumulates in space as "spent rocket stages, stray bolts and paint chips, dead or dying satellites, scattered fragments from antisatellite tests, and solid-rocket-motor slag."

Dangers Associated with Space Debris

• The speed with which space debris travels in low-Earth orbit is around 15,700 miles per hour (or 25,265 kph). If there was a collision, it could badly damage a satellite or a spacecraft. For instance, in 1996, a piece of a rocket that exploded in 1986 damaged a French satellite.
• Space debris can also collide with space stations inhabited by humans.
• Space debris can orbit our planet 15 to 16 times a day, which greatly enhances the risk of collision.
• According to Holger Krag, head of the ESA's Space Safety Programme Office, if space debris keeps accumulating over the next several decades, "some regions of space might become unusable."
• Furthermore, the increasing amount of debris will start causing more junk-generating collisions, eventually making low-Earth orbit too dangerous for space travel.
• Objects from 1 to 10 cm in size pose a particular risk due to issues with tracking. Yet, despite being tiny, they can still damage any spacecraft they collide with.
• The risk of the most threatening 1- to 10-cm range debris is assessed using complex probability models and software. Risk is predicted using factors such as a spacecraft's cross-sectional area, the assumed size of debris objects, its orbital altitude and flight path, relative speed, and the geometry of a collision event.
• It is worth noting that according to Reuters, "the risk is highest for objects orbiting at an altitude of around 1,000 kilometers or 620 miles, which is used for communications and Earth observation."

Initiatives to Remove and/or Recycle Space Debris

Astroscale Demonstration (ELSA-d) Mission

• Astroscale Holding's End-of-Life Services provided by Astroscale Demonstration (ELSA-d) mission were launched to help deal with the problem of removing space debris. ELSA-d is a two-satellite mission launched by the Japanese company Astroscale. As per Scientific American, the initiative "involves a “servicer” satellite designed to safely remove debris from orbit and a “client” one that doubles as an object of interest."
• Debris will be caught using a magnetic system. After a multiphase test run, "the servicer and client will then deorbit together, disintegrating during their fiery plunge into Earth’s atmosphere."
• In May 2022, the company announced that the ELSA-d mission had successfully completed a complex cleanup test operation.
• The company was motivated to develop tech to capture space debris because the problem poses a growing threat to exploration and exploitation of space by people.

 

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ClearSpace-1

• ClearSpace-1 is a space mission that involves the European Space Agency partnering with ClearSpace, a Swiss private company.
• ClearSpace has signed a $105 Million contract to provide debris removal services in the Earth’s Orbit. The mission is planned for 2025.

• The European Space Agency has planned the ClearSpace-1 mission to take care of the garbage and trash left by many missions and vehicles close to Earth.
• ClearSpace-1 Mission's objective is to "remove one large object from the Earth’s orbit. It will target the 100 kg Vega Secondary Payload Adapter (Vespa) left in an approximately 800 km by 660 km altitude orbit."

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• The Apollo 13 mission holds the record for the farthest distance traveled into space, with a maximum distance from Earth of around 248,655 miles.
• Humans have landed on at least seven celestial bodies, as of November 2014.
• On March 6, 2015, the US spacecraft Dawn began orbiting Ceres, becoming the first man-made object to orbit a dwarf planet.

Introduction

Achievements in Space Exploration

1. Distance

• The farthest distance that astronauts have traveled into space belongs to the Apollo 13 mission, which achieved a maximum distance from Earth of around 248,655 miles. This record has not been challenged since it was set in April 1970. Notably, the astronauts, including Fred Haise, Jim Arthur Lovell, and Jack Swigert, were initially supposed to travel to and land on the Moon, but an explosion onboard the Service Module resulted in several issues that prevented them from landing on the surface.

 

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• On August 25, 2012, Voyager 1, an unmanned spacecraft launched in 1977, entered interstellar space after leaving the heliopause, resulting in it becoming the first man-made object to exit the solar system. The spacecraft is nearly 14.5 billion miles away from Earth, as of January 2022, and has achieved the farthest distance for an object launched by humans.
• Another unmanned spacecraft that was launched on August 20, 1977, Voyager 2, exited the solar system in November 2018 and has achieved a distance of 11 billion miles away from Earth. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the California Institute of Technology currently maintain meter readings by the spacecrafts' cosmic ray instruments.

 

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Celestial Bodies Discovered

• Including lunar, small body, and planetary surfaces, humans have either lived, sent probes to, or visited a total of at least seven celestial bodies, as of November 2014. These celestial bodies include:
• The Moon (1969)
• Mars (December 2, 1971)
•  Venus (December 15, 1970)
• Saturn's moon Titan (January 14, 2005)
• The asteroid Eros (February 12, 2001)
• The asteroid Itokawa (November 19, 2005)
• The comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (November 12, 2014).
• The first photograph provided below is of an astronaut planting the US flag on the Moon, while the second one is of the surface of Venus taken by Venera 7, the first probe to land on the planet.

 

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• According to the official NASA website, there have been a total of 5,063 exoplanets identified, along with 8,819 candidates that remain unconfirmed as planets.
• On January 1992, the very first exoplanets were discovered orbiting PSR B1 257+12, which has been identified as a pulsar within the Virgo constellation. The next year, PSR B1620-26b was discovered to be "orbiting a binary system composed of a pulsar and a white dwarf."

Milestones in Space Exploration

• In 1947, the first living beings were intentionally sent into space. Specifically, fruit flies were rocketed 67 miles up, one mile beyond the point where space begins according to NASA. Due to their lightweight, compact size, and similar genetic composition to humans, they were appropriate research objects. All flies returned untouched by radiation.
• Several types of animals have been sent into space, including jellyfish, frogs, ants, cats, dogs, and about 32 monkeys. Laika (pictured below), a Samoyed terrier, became the first animal to complete an orbital spaceflight around the planet Earth on November 3, 1957.

 

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• On September 14, 1959, Luna 2 (pictured below) became the first spacecraft to successfully hard land on a celestial body. It was launched by the Soviet Union and hard landed on the Moon.

 

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• Several years later, on May 28, 1972, Mars 3, also from the Soviet Union, recorded "the first soft landing on another planet," i.e., Mars.
• On April 24, 1967, Vladimir Komarov of the Soviet Union became the first person to die during a space mission when his spacecraft, Soyuz 1, managed to become entangled within the primary parachute and plummeted to Earth during an attempted landing.
• On December 3, 1973, Pioneer 10, which was launched by the United States, became the first spacecraft to pass by the planet Jupiter.

 

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• In April 1978, Voyager 1 traveled by the planets of Jupiter and Saturn, becoming the first spacecraft to achieve such a feat (fly by both planets). The spacecraft transmitted the first images of the planets while it was 165 million miles away from Earth.
• On January 24, 1986, Voyager 2 became the very first spacecraft to pass by the planet Uranus. A few years later, on August 1, 1989, Voyager 2 became the first, and to date only, man-made object to fly by Neptune, discovering four rings and five moons around the planet.

 

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• Valery Polyakov, a Russian cosmonaut, achieved the longest human spaceflight after spending almost 438 consecutive days on the Mir space station. Polyakov's flight began in January 1994 and concluded in March 1995.
• In 1999, researchers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and San Francisco State University discovered two additional planets orbiting around Upsilon Andromedae, a star in the Pegasus constellation. This discovery became the first multi-planetary system around another star to be identified.
• On June 13, 2010, Hayabusa, which was a Japanese spacecraft, became the first such object to collect samples from an asteroid and return to Earth (image depicting its Earth re-entry provided below). More than four years later, the Rosetta and the Philae became the first spacecraft to orbit a comet (Rosetta) and land on a comet (Philae) on August 6 and November 12, 2014, respectively.

 

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• On March 6, 2015, the US spacecraft Dawn began orbiting Ceres, becoming the first man-made object to orbit a dwarf planet. That same year on July 14, another US spacecraft, New Horizons, became the first spacecraft to complete a fly-by of Pluto.
• On February 22, 2017, Trappist-1, a planetary system containing at least seven different planets the size of Earth orbiting around a red dwarf star, was discovered. Three of these planets were located within the habitable zone, which indicates that they may contain liquid water and sustain an atmosphere capable of supporting life.
• China's Chang'e 4 was the first spacecraft to land on the far side of the Moon on January 3, 2019.

 

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Additional Findings

• As stated in the Voyager Mission, Voyager 1 is expected to "come within 1.7 light-years of an obscure star in the constellation Ursa Minor (the Little Bear or Little Dipper) called AC+79 3888" in 40,272 AD.
• Also stated in the Voyager Mission, Voyager 2 is expected to "come within about 1.7 light-years of a star called Ross 248, a small star in the constellation of Andromeda" in nearly 40,000 years.

Research Strategy:

Key Takeaways

• According to NASA, reaching the closest interstellar destination, the Proxima System, will only be possible in the mid-23rd century. Some more ambitious interstellar goals will likely have to wait until the late 24th century.
• The single most significant obstacle to interstellar travel is the distance. The fastest ever spacecraft, Parker Solar Probe, would only need 20 seconds to go from Los Angeles to New York City. However, the travel to the solar system neighboring ours would take it 6,633 years.
• If humans learned how to use nuclear fusion fuel to power spacecraft for an interstellar mission, it could be 10,000 times more efficient compared to chemical fuel.

Introduction

How Far a Manned Expedition Can Travel?

• As noted by Forbes, overall, manned space expeditions are limited by the lack of resources, insufficient technology, and laws of physics. If humans were willing to dedicate appropriate resources, the current tech could likely allow them to travel to any planets and moons within the Solar System. However, reaching another star system has been described as "a dream for future generations."
• However, the above appears to be an optimistic estimation. Other sources argue that reaching Neptune, the farthest planet in our Solar System, is entirely impossible with the existing technology, which wouldn't allow humans to survive around 12 years in space, the time needed for a one-way journey.
• This is more in line with NASA's estimations, according to which even Jupiter's moons will only be achievable around the mid-2070s, while Saturn's moons - by the mid-2080s.
• The farthest destination that is considered doable now is Mars. According to a research paper published in Acta Astronautica, a manned expedition to Mars is feasible from the perspective of costs, technology, and safety for astronauts. The main challenges would be the astronauts' exposure to radiation and the influence of microgravity over an extended period of time. However, those obstacles could be mitigated with currently available technologies. The decision not to undertake a manned mission to Mars is mostly political.
• A different study confirmed that a manned expedition to Mars would be safe if it was under four years, estimating that it could take as little as two (both ways).
• According to NASA, reaching the closest interstellar destination, the Proxima System, will only be possible in the mid-23rd century. Some more ambitious interstellar goals will likely have to wait until the late 24th century.

Current Limitations

Distance

• The single most significant obstacle to interstellar travel is the distance. The fastest ever spacecraft, Parker Solar Probe, would only need 20 seconds to go from Los Angeles to New York City. However, the travel to the solar system neighboring ours would take it 6,633 years.

 

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• Apollo 10, the fastest traveling manned spacecraft, traveled at a speed of 40,000 km/h, which means it would need 115,000 years to reach Proxima Centauri.
• It is located 4.25 light-years away, or about 25 trillion miles (40 trillion km). If it were ever to become reachable, humans would need to find a way to travel faster than light.
• Even reaching the heliosphere would be a huge challenge, as shown by Voyager 1, which needed 40 years to reach it with a speed of over 35,000 miles per hour.

Fuel Limitations

• In relation to the above, a major challenge in increasing the speed of travel is the issue of fuel that could sustain the required velocity. So far, rockets that were launched into space used chemical fuels for propulsion, predominantly hydrogen-based, though an increasing body of experts considers them too heavy and inefficient.
• According to the Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, the effectiveness of using chemical fuels is only around 0.0001%.
• While several alternative ways of fueling starcraft for interstellar travel have been proposed (some of which are covered below), it appears that the technologies are not yet advanced enough to actually put them into action.

Food and Water on the Spacecraft

• A manned interstellar expedition would need to be intergenerational. Even with some technological advancements, reaching another solar system and coming back within a single lifespan doesn't appear possible.
• According to scientists, ensuring the continuity within the crew for a 6,300-year trip would require 98 members. They would need a self-sustaining food system, with at least 75 square meters of greenhouse space per person. Furthermore, while several qualities of Earth's environment can be mimicked, plants still grow slower in space due to radiation and gravity.
• A sustainable water cycle is an even bigger challenge. Researchers are currently working on possible solutions.

Radiation

• Radiation doesn't only pose a risk to plants but also to the crew. Studies need to be conducted to better understand the effect it may have over an interstellar journey.
• According to one research paper, "a radiation dose obtained in a non-relativistic space module moving in interstellar space would be, approximately, 70 rems/year whilst the safety level for a person is between 5 - 10 rems/year. The dose will, most likely, increase when accelerating to relativistic velocities."
• While the paper is from 2009, we haven't found any confirmation that the estimations changed.

Technologies That Could Increase the Possibility of Interstellar Travel

Laser-Powered Propulsion

• According to NASA, proper propulsion is one of the key technologies needed for a manned expedition to survive a deep space expedition. The farther the travel, the more powerful the propulsion system it needs to stay on course and ensure that the crew can get home.
• Blue Marble Space Institute of Science believes that laser-powered propulsion could increase the speed of a spacecraft so significantly that interstellar travel might become much more likely.

 

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• With this method, there is no need to have fuel on board. It is delivered from the space-based laser array, with high-power laser beams. This results in "a huge reflective light-sail attached to the spacecraft in orbit to accelerate it. To be effective, the mass of the entire spacecraft must be in the order of grams, whilst the combined energy output of the laser array must be in the order of hundreds of Megawatts."
• This approach has been examined by the Breakthrough Starshot program. The results showed that ~1 gram probes could be accelerated to one-fifth the speed of light, reducing the time needed to reach Proxima Centauri to 22 years. The major issue with this technology is that it is unclear how to develop it in the way that would allow powering manned spacecraft, which would be far too heavy.

Nuclear Fusion Fuel

• Nuclear fusion requires extremely high temperatures, which cause tiny atoms like hydrogen to fuse together, forming helium and larger atoms and releasing energy in the process. While such reactions naturally occur in the core of the stars (including the Sun), they are relatively difficult to replicate due to the difficulty of stably heating hydrogen to the required level.
• Nevertheless, there are attempts to find viable methods, which could be used for powering manned spacecraft. One of them is the French ITER magnetic confinement reactor, "a circle of enormous electromagnetic superconductors generates enough pressure to squeeze a central ring of hydrogen gas into a plasma, allowing their nuclei to fuse into helium and generate energy." Unfortunately, currently, the energy required to prevent the vaporization of superconductors puts a question mark over the efficiency of the project.
• According to Forbes, if humans learned how to use nuclear fusion fuel to power spacecraft for an interstellar mission, it could be 10,000 times more efficient compared to chemical fuel.
• The major advantage would be the ability to maintain the same acceleration hundreds or thousands of times longer.

Additional Findings

• In 2015, NASA published a roadmap to interstellar travel.

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• According to Air Chief Marshal, Sir Mike Wigston (UK), "Any loss or disruption to our satellite services would have a disastrous effect on people's day-to-day lives."
• German Defense Minister Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer believes that Germany's "prosperity and security are highly dependent on space. Our civilian and military satellites have long since become a resource without which nothing works. As always, when a resource becomes vital, its security becomes an issue."
• India focuses on developing its defense capabilities in space due to the threat from China, a country that has nuclear weapons and significant space capabilities.

Introduction

The Perspectives on the Biggest Value of Outer Space in Defense

Outer Space is a Military Playground

• Country: Russia 
• Organizations Involved: Russian Military 
• The Russian military sees outer space as a warfighting domain and that setting up space supremacy will be a determining factor in winning future conflicts. In addition, through its Space Forces, Russia has achieved the following in regard to its defense: "Space situational awareness, early warning of ballistic missile attacks, satellite launches and operations, and maintaining all elements of the space infrastructure at a high degree of readiness."

• In 2015, Russia established Russia Space Forces as a separate branch within the Air and Space Forces (VKS), whose mission is to "detect threats to Russia in space and from space, and, if necessary, fending off these threats."

Outer Space Defense to Boost National Security

• Country: UK 
• Organizations Involved: UK Space Command and UK Ministry of Defense Space, including the British Military 
• The UK military believes that space is fundamental to its military operations, and losing/disrupting it will affect how it conducts its defense tasks, significantly impacting its civilian, commercial, and economic activities. Therefore, setting up space commands, i.e., UK Space Command for Defense, is a key step in the "development of a coherent strategy to understand and operate in space, to protect UK interests." In addition, the British military states that future wars might be fought in space, which is why it is "fundamental" to the UK's national security and interests.

• Air Chief Marshal (ACM) Sir Mike Wigston said, "Any loss or disruption to our satellite services would have a disastrous effect on people's day-to-day lives."
• Corporal Sonia Campbell, from RAF Fylingdales, told Forces News in 2019, "While you are sleeping in your bed, we're watching space, making sure that everything is safe." 

Military Communications and Protecting Satellites

• Country: Germany 
• Organizations Involved: German Military 
• The DW article states, "Defense operations include military reconnaissance and the monitoring and protection of satellites." This is why in 2021, German launched a new space command amid increasing concerns over Chinese and Russian military advances in outer space to provide its military with "crucial communication and surveillance data against outside interference." Also, Germany sees its satellites as a "critical infrastructure" regarding communication. Therefore, another task of its new command center is to protect satellites by tracking dangerous outer space debris, aka space junk.

• "Our prosperity and security are highly dependent on space," German Defense Minister Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer said. "Our civilian and military satellites have long since become a resource without which nothing works. As always, when a resource becomes vital, its security becomes an issue."
• "Some states now regard space as a field of future military conflict," the President of the German Federal Academy for Security Policy, Ekkehard Brose, said in a statement. "Technology is advancing rapidly in this area, and it's important to keep that in mind. China and Russia, for example, have developed missiles and other military capabilities that could be used against satellites."

4. Dealing With Geopolitical Threats

• Country: India
• Organizations Involved: India Defense Ministry, such as the Center for Security, Strategy and Technology at the Observer Research Institute, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Defense Space Agency, IN-SPACe, Military
•  India faces threats from China, which has invested heavily in its outer space defense and has many satellites. Therefore, driven by its national security, India has begun investing in its military capabilities in space to respond to the growing capabilities of China in space in case they go to war regarding the Himalayan border and Indian Ocean conflicts. Investing in outer defense will help India have a "better for uninterrupted and seamless communication over large geographical areas, navigational purposes, ballistic missile warnings and superior Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities among others while being self-reliant enough for these."

• “Geopolitics is the primary driver for India to focus on the military aspects of its space program,” said Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan, director of the Center for Security, Strategy and Technology at the Observer Research Institute in New Delhi. He added, "It has to respond to the growing capabilities in space of China, with which time and again border disputes have flared. India has recognized that if it does not step up, it will lose out on using space assets for military purposes.”
• Ajay Lele, a senior fellow at the Manohar Parrikar Institute of Defense Studies and Analyses in New Delhi states, “India is in a peculiar situation. Two adversaries on its border are nuclear weapon states. And as one of them, China has developed significant counter-space capabilities, so India too wants to be prepared in the event there is weaponization of space in future.”

Military Operations

• Country: China 
• Organizations Involved: Military experts and People's Liberation Army (PLA) 
• Summary: China states that militarizing space, it now uses its satellites to gather intelligence and speed up its offensive and defensive capabilities. The country has over 30 BeiDou satellites used in civilian and military operations. The functions of these satellites include providing "real-time navigation, rapid positioning, precise timing, location reporting, and short message communication." Also, militarizing space could help China "improve its ability for early warnings, airstrikes, and missile defense."

 

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• Collin Koh, a researcher at the Institute of Defense and Strategic Studies, part of the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, said, "China’s network of satellites has the ability to find military equipment on Earth." He added, "Some of China’s space satellites are for ocean surveillance. They have both civilian and military uses."
• Andrew Yang, secretary-general of the Chinese Council of Advanced Policy Studies, a research group in Taiwan, said, "Space equipment could help China carry out strikes with several kinds of missiles."

Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• Led by General Jay Raymond, who is the first Chief of Space Operations, the mission of the US Space Force (USSF) is to “organize, train, and equip space forces in order to protect US and allied interests in space and to provide space capabilities to the joint force.”
• As specified by Congress and the Pentagon, the Space Force has two overarching goals: to defend the US space assets and create a unified theory of space power.
• According to General Raymond, the number of active US satellites in orbit almost doubled from 2,100 in 2019 to 4,900 in August 2021.

Introduction

What is the US Space Force?

• The US Space Force (USSF) was established with the enactment of the National Defense Authorization Act on December 20, 2019, becoming the sixth independent branch of the Armed Forces in 73 years following the creation of the US Air Force in 1947.

 

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• Led by General Jay Raymond, who is the first Chief of Space Operations, the mission of the USSF is to “organize, train, and equip space forces in order to protect US and allied interests in space and to provide space capabilities to the joint force.” Similar to the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force, the USSF has its headquarters in the Pentagon.
• Specifically, the USSF is responsible for running missile detection networks and the GPS constellation, monitoring both intentional and unintended threats to the active satellites in space, as well as advancing US space strategy and the international rules that govern space.
• The uniqueness of the USSF lies in the fact that it is the first of its kind in the world—the world's first independent space force. However, following its creation in December 2019, countries like France, Canada, and Japan have started creating analogous military branches based on the same concerns as the USSF.
• On the importance of having a Space Force, General Raymond said he is “convinced that adversaries are increasingly using space for their own long-range kill-chains. So the ability to protect our own capability and generate space superiority despite attack is critical. Space underwrites the success and survivability of our Joint force.”

Goals

• As specified by Congress and the Pentagon, the Space Force has two overarching goals: to defend the US space assets and create a unified theory of space power.
• The maintenance, protection, and expansion of the US fleet of advanced military satellites is the primary goal of the Space Force, as these satellites significantly bolster the global military operations of the modern US military. Outnumbering that of any other country, these satellites give the US military significant advantages, such as being able to communicate instantaneously across battle zones, discover the positions and movements of adversaries, and carry out precision strikes.
• The goal of creating a unified space warfighting theory is considered essential, as it is meant to illustrate how useful space and the Space Force itself are to the country's national security. Critics of the Space Force have questioned establishing it as an independent military branch before extensive demonstrations of its ability to contribute to victory on the war front, as was the case for the Air Force and Marine Corps.
• A secondary goal is to grow the network of coalitions and partnerships. Most of such partnerships will likely focus on combining space operations. As the US Task Force is the first agency of its kind, it is believed to be the natural leader with many potential allies.

Progress on the Goals

• According to General Raymond, the number of active US satellites in orbit almost doubled from 2,100 in 2019 to 4,900 in August 2021. However, in the same period, China and Russia also significantly increased their presence in space.
• In January 2020, the USSF alerted U.S. troops in Iraq of incoming missiles, giving them enough time to take defensive measures.
• Furthermore, it has launched the Space Warfighting Analysis Center with the goal to "identify a future force design, underpinned by world-class analysis to balance performance, cost, and resiliency.”
• Raymond also inked many valuable partnerships, including with Canada, Australia, and the UK on the Combined Space Operations Center in Colorado. Other collaborators at the center include France, Germany, and New Zealand.
• In fewer than 18 months after its establishment, the USSF developed its “doctrine, processes, leadership, organizational structures and operations,” for which it was awarded the 2021 Space Achievement Award by the Space Foundation.

 

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Research Strategy

Key Takeaways

• The technology used in scratch-resistant lenses was invented by NASA to improve the durability of helmet visors.
• NASA developed an infrared-based thermometer that can measure the temperature of stars based on their infrared radiation output. Today, the mechanism is used in ear thermometers to measure the temperature of babies.
• The "blow rubber molding" technology used in Nike Air sneakers was patented by M. Frank Ruddy, a former NASA engineer. It was meant for use in space suits. Now, it gives runners the feeling of "running on air."

Introduction

Memory Foam Mattresses

• NASA was concerned about the safety of the landing of its astronauts. It developed open-cell, polyurethane-silicon plastic that would create padding for crash protection by distributing the weight and pressure during landing. Today, memory foam mattresses are used in cushioning such as in mattresses and pillows.

Scratch-Resistant Lenses

• In space, astronauts' helmet visors can get damaged by dirt and particles found in the space environment. The technology serves to improve the durability of helmet visors. Today, the technology is used to make eyeglasses scratch resistance.

Camera Phones

• In the 1990s, NASA needed to build a camera that would be portable enough to be taken on a spacecraft but still have scientific accuracy. It engaged Jet Propulsion Laboratory to develop tiny and high-quality cameras. Similar technology is now used in a third of all cameras.