3D-printed Footwear Market

• According to research by Technavio, the global 3D-printed footwear market will grow by 19% between 2019 and 2023.
• The report estimates that the 19% incremental growth will be equivalent to $751.08 million. Based on the calculations presented in the last part of the strategy section, if the global 3D-printed footwear market will grow by $751.08 million during the period 2019-2023, and the CAGR during this forecast period is 19.0%, then it can be computed that the global 3D-printed footwear market will grow from $541.77 million in 2018 to $1.29 billion by 2023.
• According to another report available on AP News, the 3D-printed footwear market will reach about $5.9 billion in 2029 growing at a CAGR of 19.5% from 2019.
• Using a Reverse CAGR calculator, and taking the 2018 as the base year, the market size in 2019 would be about $831.4 million.
• The second report further adds that the global 3D-printed footwear market will be about $1 billion in 2023.
• The players that are likely to drive the global 3D-printed footwear market include Adidas, Nike, Under Armour, 3D Systems, Stratasys, Superfeet, Kings 3D, Carbon, and New Balance, among others.
• Additionally, it is estimated that the 3D-printed footwear industry will represent about 1.5% of total global footwear revenues by 2029.
• While the two estimates seem to agree on the market size for the global 3D-printed footwear industry (about $1 billion) in 2023, there seems to be a significant disparity between the estimated present values.
• Furthermore, research indicates that the footwear industry is among the biggest benefactors of additive manufacturing (3D-printing), only second to the eyewear industry. This means that the footwear market represents a significant portion of the 3D-printed apparel industry.

3D Printing Market

• According to Statista, the global 3D printing market was about $4.4 billion in 2013 and is expected to reach $21 billion in 2021.
• The market was valued at $5.7 billion, $6.9 billion, $8.3 billion, $10 billion, and $12 billion in 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively. It is estimated that the market would reach $14.5 billion and $17.5 billion in 2019 and 2020, respectively.
• The key players in the overall 3D printing market are Stratasys, 3D Systems, Envisiontec, Protolabs, EOS GmbH, Mcor Technologies, Ultimaker, Renishaw, and Ge Additive, among others.
• Notably, none of the top players are in the sports apparel industry (or the consumer goods segment), which would indicate that the industry still lags behind other players in the adoption of the technology.
• Compared, even with the higher estimate of the size of the 3D-printed footwear industry in 2018 ($831.4 million), the market is still far below the overall 3D printing industry.

RESEARCH STRATEGY

Adidas

• The global 3D printing market in 2018 was valued at $10.87 billion and is projected to reach $44.39 billion by 2025. This represents an annual growth rate of 21.8% from 2019 to 2025.

• Adidas, which is a leading sports company in 3D printing, collaborated with Carbon resulting in the production of 100, 000 pairs of the Futurecraft 4D sneakers in 2018.
• Adidas is expected to release another version of the 3D sneaker, the Alphaedge 4d. In 2017, Adidas released the shoe, Y-3 which was created by the Japanese designer Yahji Yamamoto.
• The Y-3 sneaker is an extension of the Futurecraft 4D series, which was nominated for the 2019 3D Printing Industry Award for the category Consumer Product of the year.
• The successful launch of these products has compelled Adidas to produce more 3D printed sneakers.
• Assuming stability in macroeconomic conditions, ADIDAS projected that the global sports industry will grow at a single-digit rate in 2019.
• The growth of the sport industry is driven by demand from North America, which is the biggest market size in the world.
• However, in developing economies, the demand for the sneakers is likely to be the result of rapid modernization and the growing middle class, which will result in a higher demand for the 3D products.
• Adidas projects that labor market conditions will also lead to a rise in the demand for sporting goods including the 3D products.
• The management of Adidas projected that the growth rate of Adidas sales will be 5-8% in 2019, which will be driven by the market segments. However, the revenue is projected to grow by 4%.
• The rising sports participation rate is expected to increase the demand for the Adidas products.
• The management of Adidas has confidence that the current earnings form a basis for a better financial outlook and demand for the Adidas 3D products.

New Balance

• New Balance is a multinational footwear maker, which rivals Adidas. It has adopted its TripleCell 3D printing platform with the launch of a new sneaker named FuelCell Echo Triple in 2019.
• New Balance collaborated with the 3D printer, OEM Formlabs in 2017. This led to an exclusive partnership to produce high performance athletic footwear.
• Following the public announcement that the 990 Sport TripleCell would commence shipping to the United States, the product immediately experienced a high demand and was sold within a short time. Consequently, New Balance introduced the FuelCell Echo Triple as a product that augments the 990 Sport TripleCell.
• The projected growth of New Balance in 2020 is expected to come from an increase in the production of the TripleCell collection and expansion of the manufacturing facilities.
• Another reason for expected increase in growth is that the 3D technology is likely to increase production efficiency and lower costs. This eventually will result in lower shipping costs to leading to an increase in global demand.
• New Balance intends to promote local demand and production first in Massachusetts to prevent drastic decline in sales dues to changing world macroeconomic factors.

•  Privco projects a 3% annual revenue growth rate for New Balance from 2018-2020.

Research Methodology

New Balance

• Sportswear brand New Balance was identified by SmarTech Publishing, a leading market research provider in the 3D printing space, as one of five leading footwear manufacturers that are utilizing 3D printing. The brand was mentioned alongside Nike, Adidas, and Under Armour, which were already identified as key players in the 3D-printed sportswear space.
•  New Balance was mentioned alongside Nike, Adidas, and Under Armour in an article discussing 3D-printed sneakers that are gaining traction.
• The brand was also identified by market research firm Technavio as one of the five key players in the global 3D-printed footwear market. The brand was mentioned alongside Nike, Adidas, and Under Armour.

• The brand has partnered with 3D printing company Formlabs to develop high-performance and innovative materials, hardware, and processes such as the TripleCell platform and the new photopolymer resin Rebound Resin. The Rebound Resin, which can be used to produce "a springy, resilient structure," promises durability, while the TripleCell platform, which enables on-demand and customizable manufacturing, promises seamless and efficient data-to-design digital manufacturing.
• With its 3D printing technologies, New Balance promises high-performance sports shoes and offers on-demand and customizable manufacturing.

Reebok

• Sportswear brand Reebok was identified by SmarTech Publishing as one of five leading footwear manufacturers that are utilizing 3D printing. The brand was mentioned alongside Nike, Adidas, and Under Armour.

•  Reebok, with its 3D-printing Liquid Factory and its liquid and Flexweave materials, promises shoes that are lighter and more comfortable and that offer improved traction and cushioning.
• Reebok touts that, with its Liquid Factory process, it is capable of creating the entire shoe (outsole, cushioning systems, and cushioning) through 3D printing.

ECCO

•  ECCO, a footwear manufacturer whose product portfolio includes sports shoes, was identified by Technavio as one of the five key players in the global 3D-printed footwear market. The brand was mentioned alongside Nike, Adidas, and Under Armour.
• In an article published by 3D Printing Industry, a site that offers additive manufacturing news, ECCO was cited as an emerging contender in the market for 3D-printed sneakers.

• ECCO, with its Quant-U technology, promises "real mass customization." It leverages both 3D scanning and 3D printing to produce fully customized shoes in just a matter of hours, with the personalization process involving three steps, namely, "real-time analysis, data-driven design, and in-store 3D printing."

Research Strategy

Overview

• The 3D printed footwear market is projected to reach $6.3 billion over the next 10 years.
• The five leading footwear companies (Adidas, Nike, Reebok, Under Armour, and New Balance) are investing in 3D printing technology to develop different footwear parts using efficient technology and new production materials.
• The race among these companies is to offer products that fit better, perform faster, and are lighter in weight.
• Retail prices for 3D printed shoes range from $300 to over $5,000 per pair.

1) Under Armour (UA)

Company Overview

• Under Armour, Inc. is headquartered in Baltimore, Maryland. In 2018, the company generated annual revenue of $5.2 billion.
• Wholesale revenue contributes nearly 60% of the total revenue. Further, the apparel category provides 70% of annual revenue, followed by the footwear category at 21.1% and accessories category at 8.1%.
• Under Armour (UA) is one of the leading inventor, manufacturer, and distributor of branded performance apparel, accessories, and footwear for athletes.
• The company develops products for all athletes to perform better. Further, the company offers the world's largest digitally-connected community for health and fitness enthusiasts.

3D Printed Products

• The company offers limited edition midsoles developed using SLS technology and TPU.
• UA introduced the first range of 3D printed footwear in 2016, under its brand of Architech. The second brand was introduced in 2017 as the UA Futurist.
• The company managed to sell 96 pairs of Architech series, followed by 410 pairs for updated 3D printed shoe series. In 2019 the company manufactured a batch of 2,000 pairs for its Futurist series.

Competitive Advantage

• Under Armour partnered with EOS North America Inc. to jointly develop advanced selective laser sintering (SLS) technology and scale up production for 3D-printed footwear.
• The lattice structure of 3D-printed TPU midsoles is designed to offer energy bounce on being pressed due to weight.

Target Market

• The target segment includes weightlifting, CrossFit, and training athletes.

2) Nike

Company Overview

• Nike, Inc. is headquartered in Beaverton, Oregon. In 2019, the company generated revenue of $39.1 billion, registering a growth of 11%.
• Nike is one of the world’s leading designer, manufacturer, and distributor of authentic athletic apparels, footwear, accessories, and equipment for sports and fitness activities.
• The company's mission is to "expand human potential." Nike focuses on creating groundbreaking sport innovations with sustainable products that have a positive impact on communities.

3D Printed Products

• The company offers 3D printed mass customized uppers, midsoles, and custom football cleats.
• Nike's range of 3D printed footwear includes Nike Flyprints, Nike Vapor HyperAgility, and Nike Vapor Laser Talon.
• Nike has partnered with EOS and Prodways for developing SLS technology using TPU and nylon. Further, the company offers custom-designed 3D footwear using biometric data.

Competitive Advantage

• The company has developed 3D printed football cleats that offer optimal traction and enable players to maintain their 'drive stance' longer.
• The 3D printed cleats enable football players to master 'Zero Step' for the 40-yard dash. Additionally, the HyperAgility Cleat was explicitly developed for the “shuttle drill."
• Nike's 3D printed textiles offer the advantage of increased dynamism by providing an interconnection between a warp and weft.
• Nike is developing innovative manufacturing processes to iterate, test, and push the limits of 3D printing technology. Further, the company can test prototypes about 16-times faster than other manufacturing processes.
• Flyprint uses a composite made of thermoplastic urethane plastic (TPU), resulting in a fabric that is extremely flexible, light, and breathable. The material does not absorb water and provides tiny holes in a mesh to let the water escape.

Target Market

• Nike's target customers for 3D printed footwear include marathon runners, football players, and athletes seeking high-performance footwear.

3) Adidas

Company Overview

• Adidas is headquartered in Herzogenaurach, Germany. In 2018, the company generated sales of more than €21.9 billion ($24.4 billion).
• In 2018, Adidas produced more than 900 million sports and lifestyle products. The mission of the company is to be "the best sports company in the world."
• Adidas' vision is to custom print a 3D shoe within 15 minutes. Further, the company hopes to produce nearly 50 million pairs using 3D printing in the future.

3D Printed Products

• The company offers mass-produced polyurethane lattice midsoles under the range of Futurecraft 4D & 3D, AlphaEdge, and Y-3 Runner.

Competitive Advantage

• In 2017, the company partnered with Carbon to develop a 3D-printed sole using Digital Light Synthesis (DLS) process.
• The 3D printing technology developed by Carbon can print a shoe '100-times faster' than compared to traditional 3D printing.
• The DLS technology uses digital light projection, programmable liquid resins, and oxygen-permeable optics to develop high-performance and durable polymeric products.
• The company has produced more than 100,000 midsoles using the DLS process. Further, the company has access to enough 3D printers for producing one million pairs of 3D printed footwear.

Target Market

• The company markets its 3D printed products by associating technology with the 'pinnacle of sports'.
• Adidas is targeting the masses by designing high-performance footwear to meet the demand for 'every kind of athlete.'

ECCO

Overview

• ECCO is a world-leading manufacturer of footwear founded in 1963 and headquartered in Bredebro, South Denmark. The company employs approximately 21,300 individuals and has a market that spans over 99 countries around the world.
• Hanni Toosbuy Kasprzak is the chairman of ECCO, and the company generated net sales of €1.31 billion ($1.46 billion) in the 2018 fiscal year.

3D printed product offerings

• ECCO offers 3D-printed shoes through its newly introduced platform Quant-U, which combines 3D scanning and 3D printing to create customized shoes to fit each individual’s foot.

Competitive advantage

• ECCO produces its own materials and manufactures 80% of its products in factories around the world, and owning and controlling the entire value chain gives them huge flexibility and allows them to maintain the highest levels of quality, which provides them a higher competitive advantage over its competitors.

Target market

• The company targets men and women from the upper-middle class and upper class to offer their products.

Reebok

Overview

• Reebok is a sports and lifestyle footwear, apparel, and accessories manufacturer that was founded in 1958 and headquartered in Boston, MA. The company was acquired by Adidas as a subsidiary and employs approximately 9102 individuals.
• Reebok generated net sales of €1.69 billion ($1.89 billion) in the 2018 fiscal year, and its mission is "to be the best fitness brand in the world."

3D printed product offerings

• Reebok introduced its first line of 3D-printed shoes in 2016 with its Liquid Factory technology called Liquid Speed, which was a limited run of 300 shoes.
• Then the company recently introduced a new shoe offering known as the Liquid Floatride Run, which uses the same technology, and it is the only available 3D-printed offering up to date.

Competitive advantage

• Reebok has created a unique position by celebrating the authenticity and individuality of people, which has made them a people-centric brand and it has gained a competitive advantage through the strength of its parent company Adidas, which has helped the company to target new markets efficiently and gain big advertising and marketing investments.

Target market

• The company mostly targets urban consumers from the middle class and upper-middle class in all age ranges.

New Balance

Overview

• New Balance is a footwear, apparel, and accessory manufacturer founded in 1906 and headquartered in Brighton, MA. The company employs approximately 8000 individuals and has a market that spans over 120 countries.
• New Balance generated a revenue of $4.1 billion in the 2018 fiscal year. The company's mission is to support the performance of athletes with an unparalleled focus on quality and craftsmanship.

3D printed product offerings

• New Balance formed a partnership with Formlabs to design 3D-printed products using the TripleCell platform, which combines stereolithography technology with the custom rebound resin.
• The company has only introduced two shoe offerings called 990 Sport TripleCell and FuelCell Echo Triple, which comes with a 3D-printed cushion sole.

Competitive advantage

• According to New Balance, their competitive advantage lies in the promotion of environmental sustainability practices in its manufacturing process, which appeals to most of its sports enthusiastic target market. The company also focus on catering to the needs of small retailers to tap small service type of customers, which give them room for establishing good customer relationships in various retail outlets.

Target market

• The company targets sports enthusiastic young men, women, and children from the upper-middle class as its target customers.

Current 3D-Printed Apparel Trends

1. Most Apparel Is Being Made for the Luxury Segment

• A current trend in the 3D printing market for apparel is that most clothing items being made are in the luxury segment.
• As such, most 3D-printed clothing appears on fashion runways.
• As was noted in an article, "3D printed apparel is still mostly reserved for runway show[s]" where innovative, fashion designs abound. On a related note, " 3D printing of clothing gravitates towards contemporary design."
• We determined that this is a trend because the information provided by two or more, reputable sources (Stratasys, All3DP, and Future Work Institute) directly supported that conclusion.
• Though this trend has thus far been mostly limited to fashion shows, the Director of Art, Design, and Fashion for industry source Stratasys opined that "[w]ithin the next two years, I believe consumers will be able to purchase an array of 3D-printed garments from high-fashion brands."
•  Pringle of Scotland and Louis Vuitton are brands manifesting this trend.

2. Mesh Systems Used to Construct 3D-Printed Clothing

• A second, current trend in the 3D printing market for apparel is that mesh systems are being used to construct 3D-printed clothing.
• We determined that this is a trend because the information provided by at least two, reputable industry sources (All3DP and Sculpteo) directly supported that conclusion.
• In an article titled "2019 State of the Art in 3D Printed Fashion[,]" it was stated that "most 3D printed garments are typically built using mesh systems, which are individually 3D printed and later assembled."
• The reason mesh systems are used for constructing 3D-printed clothes is because they help to make the items more flexible (and thus less rigid, which has been a factor constraining advances in 3D printing for apparel).
• XYZ Workshop and Ultimaker are brands manifesting this trend. Danit Peleg is a fashion designer who manifests this trend.

3. Strong Focus on Sustainability

• A third, current trend in the 3D printing market for apparel is the strong focus on sustainability.
• We determined that this is a trend because the information provided by at least two, reputable industry sources (Sculpteo and To Buy a 3D Printer) directly supported that conclusion.
• As was stated in an article, "many 3D printed garments are made from recyclable additives."
• In an article from industry source Sculpteo, it was noted that "now, the reasons why designers are choosing this 3D printing are changing: it is becoming important to use 3D printing for sustainable and eco-friendly purposes."
• Brands that are manifesting this trend include Bottletop, Heisel, and Balenciaga.

Research Strategy

Key Drivers of 3D-Printed Apparel

1. Customization

• The ability to customize apparel to precisely fit a particular person is a key driver of 3D printing applications in both the sports and general apparel industries.
• As an expert in 3D-printed apparel stated, "3D-printed fitness gear has some serious pros, the most obvious of which is customization."
• 3D printing allows apparel to be made in non-traditional forms and from unique materials, which furthers the level of customization that's possible to achieve.
• This key driver is impacting industry growth by providing a new vehicle for original apparel to be made with impeccable precision to a person's specific measurements.

2. Design Creativity & Innovation

• A key driver of 3D printing applications in the general apparel industry is that many designers are fascinated by the seemingly infinite range of possibilities for creative and innovative apparel designs and are thus debuting their new, groundbreaking designs.
• Maartje Dijkstra (a prominent fashion design from the Netherlands) "uses 3D printing to create surreal creations that would otherwise be impossible to achieve. " His designs have also been described as "otherworldly." He stated that 3D printing enables him to both "create little elements and repeat it to make a fabric that you can’t buy in the store" and "be more progressive."
• This key driver is impacting industry growth by appearing on fashion runways at prominent, industry events such as New York Fashion Week, and is thus laying the groundwork for the future of clothing by pushing the boundaries of what is possible in the apparel industry.

3. Sustainability

•  Sustainability is a key driver of 3D printing applications in the general apparel industry.
• Many fashion companies and fashion buyers alike are becoming increasingly aware of and concerned about their environmental impact.
• The fashion industry is regarded as among the key contributors to adverse environmental impacts and has received ample criticism about such.
• This key driver is impact industry growth in that an increasing number of fashion companies are embracing environmentally friendly and clean technologies (including 3D printing) in their manufacturing processes.
• A prominent designer of 3D-printed clothing, Julia Daviy, is widely recognized for her emphasis on sustainability. She said that one of the reasons she first decided to use 3D printing for her designs was that she sought a sustainable method through which to make clothes and one that did not create waste (which is a huge benefit of 3D-printed apparel).

4. Quicker Innovation & Turnaround Times

• Another key driver of 3D printing applications in the general apparel industry is that it allows for quicker innovation among designers and shorter turnaround times for production.
• With regard to quicker innovation, 3D-printing allows for apparel prototypes to be made rapidly and even on-demand, which ultimately helps to get the final product completed faster.
• Quicker innovation is important to fashion companies because styles are changing faster than they used to and "the lifespan of seasonal collections has decreased over the years. " 3D printing enables fashion companies "to bring new styles to stores as quickly and efficiently as possible[, which] is a prime determinant of any apparel maker’s . . . success." As a result, this key driver is impacting industry growth in that companies can react quicker to changing style preferences and get new products to market faster, in order to bolster their bottom lines.

Research Strategy

WHY USERS PREFER 3D PRINTED SPORTS APPAREL

• 3D technology allows for an unparalleled, customized fit. Consumers appreciate having an article of sportswear that has been specifically created for their unique bodies. Users of 3D printed sportswear choose this method of apparel design because every size customer's needs are met. Under Armour utilizes volumetric avatars to determine where volume is held within the body, thus creating the perfect fit for every size user.
• In addition to brand recognition. "athlete consumers typically desire products that will improve performance." Because 3D printing allows for enhancements in athletic performance, athletes are interested in purchasing this type of apparel.
• Consumers are also pleased that 3D clothing may be designed, created and purchased more quickly than articles produced using the traditional apparel design process. According to Pieter Strikwerda, CEO and founder of 3DPrinting.com, this is because "it requires less production time from the idea to the finished product." Design time is reduced by using avatars based on 3D body measurements, thus eliminating the need for the time-consuming process of prototyping.
• Today's consumer is also attracted to the sustainability of 3D printing. The process yields little waste, as compared to the 35% of fabric that is typically left over in the traditional production process

USER INTERACTIONS WITH 3D TECHNOLOGY

• The consumer is typically required to have only one encounter with the design company, during which one body scan allows the designer to create sportswear with the perfect fit and function.
• Customers can avoid a visit to the store by using 3D body scanning apps to interact with the apparel company.
• If a user owns a 3D printer capable of producing apparel, the apparel company can email the customer a printable design. This enables users to print their clothing from the comfort of their own homes.

USER BEHAVIORS WHEN WEARING 3D PRINTED APPAREL

• Athletes exhibit improved athletic performance when wearing 3D printed sportswear. This is achieved by the technology's capability to cater designs based on the type of movements and body types associated with a particular sport. Under Armour, for example, works with sport-specific avatars to determine how various customer body shapes fit into new designs. The company considers that two athletes may be a size medium, but the shape and size of a runner versus a rugby player require completely different designs.
• Athletes achieve a heightened sense of comfort when wearing 3D printed sportswear in warm conditions. They experience less irritation from sweat, as 3D fabric is capable of repelling heat and the pattern is designed for better airflow.
• Users experience greater ease of movement due to the technology's ability to engineer a multi-dimensional pattern that considers the location of joints. 3D printed sportswear moves with the body because the design incorporates the areas under the most strain.
• Athletes may experience greater self-confidence and motivation when wearing 3D printed apparel. One company, Tredfashions, produces sportswear for bodybuilders. In advertising their apparel, they claim that their 3D shirts reflect an athlete's "addiction and discipline to the gym" and that wearing their shirts will push athletes to "work harder in the gym."

PAIN POINTS WITH 3D PRINTED SPORTSWEAR

• Users of 3D printed sportswear who engage in formal competitions run the risk of being accused of apparel doping. 3D printed athletic wear is frequently altered to minimize air resistance to enhance the speed of cyclists, swimmers, and runners. When athletes have an edge over their competitors, the door is opened for a doping investigation.
• Many users are unable to purchase 3D printed apparel due to its prohibitive cost. For example, at one 3D apparel company in Boston, Ministry of Supply, a consumer may purchase a custom, on-demand, 3D printed blazer for approximately $345. As the market expands, costs will inevitably decrease for consumers.

RESEARCH STRATEGY

In order to carry out this research, we analyzed the consumers of 3D printed sportswear for several leading sports apparel brands, including Nike, New Balance, Adidas, and Under Armour. This was achieved by analyzing the marketing of 3D sportswear as well as by reviewing the research findings from a Maker Lab at a major research University. We considered the consumer viewpoint of non-athletic 3D printed apparel to be transferable to sportswear. As such, data regarding consumer behavior in overall 3D apparel industry was also considered. We suggest that further research regarding the consumer experience of using 3D printers at home will be warranted in the near future, as 3D printers become more accessible to consumers.

User Interest

• Users may be interested in 3D printed apparel over traditional clothing because 3D printed clothing eventually will be more breathable, allow for more freedom of movement, and eliminate wrinkles.
• Users are most interested in the customizable nature of 3D printed apparel, as well as the ability of 3D printed apparel to fit perfectly, be aesthetically pleasing, and support self-expression.

User Interaction

• Current 3D printed garments are limited to fashion shows, museums, or art shows. Therefore, the consumer is only able to interact with these garments if they attend fashion or art shows.

Motivations for Purchase

• Consumers are most motivated to purchase 3D printed apparel based on the qualities of the apparel itself — its aesthetics and whether it fits the consumer's lifestyle needs — with only limited influence coming from social factors.
• Consumers are most interested in purchasing 3D printed accessories, as opposed to 3D printed garments.
• Dominant reasons for not purchasing 3D printed clothing include it not being comfortable and not allowing for free movement.

Consumer Profile

• Consumers who indicate strong potential for purchasing 3D printed apparel tend to be innate innovators and fashion leaders.  
• Additionally, most consumers who are aware of 3D printed fashion are female millennials.  

Pain Points

• Current 3D printed clothing is currently uncomfortable to wear due to fabric that can be hard to move in and can stick to skin.
• Additionally, 3D printed clothing currently takes a lot of assembly work, relying on traditional methods to attach pieces of 3D printed garments together into one wearable piece.
• Another pain point for 3D printed apparel currently is that the garments are not machine washable.

Research Strategy